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Eor the past several decades, the debate over the proper relationship between r business and society has focused on the topic of corporate social responsi- bility (CSR) (Klonoski 1991). In the modern era, the stage was set for this debate by Keith Davis, who posed two intriguing questions in the 1960s: "What does the businessperson owe society?" (Davis 1967) and "Can business afford to ignore its social responsibilities?" (Davis 1960). Although many have attempted to define CSR over the years, the concept has remained vague and ambiguous to some (Makower 1994: 12). Definitions of CSR fall into two general schools of thought, those that argue that business is obligated only to maximize profits within the boundaries of the law and minimal ethical constraints (Friedman 1970; Levitt 1958), and those that have suggested a broader range of obligations to- ward society (Andrews 1973; Carroll 1979; Davis and Blomstrom 1975; Epstein 1987; McGuire 1963). 21091
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An important attempt to bridge the gap between economics and other expec-
tations was offered by Archie Carroll (1979). His efforts culminated in the
following proposed definition of corporate social responsibility:
The social responsibility of business encompasses the economic, legal, ethi-
cal, and discretionary expectations that society has of organizations at a
given point in time. (1979: 500, emphasis added)
As a helpful way of graphically depicting the components of his CSR defini-
tion and expounding upon them, he later incorporated his four-part categorization
into a "Pyramid of Corporate Social Responsibility" (1991; 1993). Carroll's
Pyramid of CSR is presented in Figure 1.
Carroll's four categories or domains of CSR have been utilized by numerous
theorists (Wartick and Cochran 1985; Wood 1991; Swanson 1995, 1999) and
empirical researchers (Aupperle 1984; Aupperle, Carroll, and Hatfield 1985; Bur-
ton and Hegarty 1999; Clarkson 1995; Ibrahim and Angelidis 1993, 1994, 1995;
Mallott 1993; O'Neill, Saunders, and McCarthy 1989; Pinkston and Carroll 1996;
Smith, Wokutch, Harrington, and Dennis 2001; Spencer and Butler 1987; Strong
and Meyer 1992). Several business and society and business ethics texts have
incorporated Carroll's CSR domains (Boatright 1993; Buchholz 1995; Weiss 1994)
or have depicted the CSR Pyramid (Carroll and Buchholtz 2000, 2003; Jackson,
Miller, and Miller 1997; Sexty 1995; Trevino and Nelson 1995). According to
Wood and Jones (1996: 45), Carroll's four domains have "enjoyed wide popular-
ity among SIM (Social Issues in Management) scholars." Such use suggests that
Carroll's CSR domains and pyramid framework remain a leading paradigm of
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