2。1。3 Conceptual Metaphor Theory

Lakoff and Johnson start a real revolution in semantic area with the publication of the book Metaphors We Live By。 The new stage appears to be the cognitive study of metaphor, with representatives like George Lakoff, Mark Johnson, Langacker, Talmy and so on。 They put metaphor into conceptual system, dramatically challenging the traditional metaphor theory。 “If we are right in suggesting that our conceptual system is largely metaphorical, then the way we think, what we experience, and what we do every day is very much a matter of metaphor。” (Lakoff, Johnson, 1980, p。454)。 They (1980) put forward the conceptual metaphor theory and elaborate the concept of domain and conceptual metaphor。 Conceptual metaphor refers to the understanding of one conceptual domain, or one idea, in terms of another。 It means that metaphor is a cross-domain mapping from source domains to target domains in conceptual system。 

Later, there is a blooming of studies in cognitive semantics。 With the deepening of researches in Lakoff and Johnson’s conceptual metaphor, researchers find some deficiencies and further replenish the theory。 For example, Langacker studies the conceptual metaphor based upon the pragmatics。 He (1991) adds the role of context in metaphor which extend the explanation of metaphor in cognitive approach。

2。2 The Mechanism of Conceptual Metaphor

2。2。1 The Nature of Conceptual Metaphor

Under the framework of cognitive theory, metaphor reveals the nature of human conceptual system。 The different uses of metaphor in different languages suggest the pergence of different language societies。 In 1980s, Lakoff and Johnson proposed the theory of conceptual metaphor。 This theory believes that metaphor shows not only in literary works but also in people’s daily life, and deeply influences people’s way of thinking and speaking。 In their model, “The essence of metaphor is understanding and experiencing one kind of thing in terms of another。” (Lakoff, Johnson, 1980, p。455) In principle, metaphor can be defined as the systematic process of the mapping from a source domain to a target domain so as to enhance the understanding of an abstract conceptual domain in terms of another。 

In general, conceptual metaphor is the mapping from source domain to target domain。 Source domain is the conceptual domain from which we give metaphorical expressions (e。g。, money in TIME IS MONEY) and target domain refers to the domain that we try to understand (e。g。, time in TIME IS MONEY)。 We tend to use source domain to explain target domain, thus the former one is more concrete while the latter usually more abstract。

Mapping is not just simply based upon the universalities。 It is the systematic set of correspondences which exist between the source and the target domain。 Although sometimes not noticed before the metaphor is active, other logic, scope, actions, and interrelationships from the source domains will be transferred to the target domains。 

Accordingly, by studying the water and fire metaphor in Chinese and English, this study mainly attempts to understand how metaphor indicates the differences between cultures in view of conceptual metaphor theory。

2。2。2 Cognitive Functions of Conceptual Metaphor

In conceptual metaphor theory, metaphor is weighed as a basic way to experience and understand the world。 Thus, other than a simple linguistic ornament, metaphor also functions as a vital approach to human cognitive process。 Metaphor is regarded as an essential element to understand the abstract concept and conceptualize our experience。 

In learning process, there is trouble to understand some abstract concepts only by direct experience。 Because most of them cannot just be experience。 We tend to learn them by something more concrete and we are more familiar with。 It is the nature of metaphor。 In cognitive linguistics, conceptual metaphor is to understand one concept by another。 For example, we cannot see the passing of time, but we use metaphor of water to understand it (e。g。, 逝者如斯夫，不舍昼夜/ water under the bridge)。 And the world is developing and changing quickly every day, some new things or concept come up and they can be understood them the aid of some old concepts, such as information highway, computer virus, mouse, bug, etc。