2 Literature Review

2。1 Classroom discourse analysis

2。1。1 Definition of classroom discourse

When most linguists concentrated on analyzing single sentences, Zellig Harris (1952) published the paper “Discourse analysis” and proposed that attention should be paid to extended texts of linguistic elements distribution and the association between the text and social condition。 Allwright & Bailey (1991) defined teaching as a process of classroom interaction and teacher’s mission is to manage the classroom interaction。 Ellis (1999) hypothesized that classroom discourse was a major variable impact on SLA in formal settings and classroom discourse analysis was used to explore both how inpidual utterances impact and how utterances integrated to lager discourse units。 Discourse analysis applies principles and methodology typical of linguistics to analyze classroom discourse in structural-functional linguistic terms (Chaudron 1988:14)。

2。1。2 Discourse interaction pattern

As Dörnyei and Murphey (2003) explained, successful classroom learning relies much on what roles the teacher and learners take and how students get involved in interaction。 Moskowitz (1971, 1976) formulated a Foreign Language Interaction Analysis system for class observation。 The taxonomy contains three categories: teacher talk, student talk and other para-linguistic features including silence, confusion, laughter, use of the native language and nonverbal gestures。 Teacher talk is pided into indirect influence, namely dealing with feelings, praising or encouraging, using ideas of students and asking questions, and direct influence, namely giving information, giving directions and criticizing student behavior。 Student talk covers specific student responses and open-ended student responses。

Bellack et al (1966) provided a framework of classroom discourse description with structure, solicit, respond and reaction。 Flanders (1970) focused on the nature of interaction between teacher and students and what teacher said during teaching with consequences for students’ participation and performance。 Sinclair and Coulthard (1975) developed a model to describe classroom discourse on the basis of Halliday’s ranked scale approach in a hierarchical order。 In British schools, classroom interaction pattern contains teacher initiation, learner response, and teacher feedback called IRF; while in American schools, it contains teacher initiation, student response and teacher evaluation called IRE。

Sinclair and Coulthard’s research were quite contributive; however, some researchers stressed the importance of taking the total patterns of classroom discourse into consideration。 Willis (1992) modified the model that display question may have a model like initiation, response and evaluation, whereas, referential question may have a pattern like initiation, response and acknowledgement。 Ellis (1999) observed different types of classroom discourse and viewed classroom discourse in two dimensions, involving interactive objectives and address。 Mc Tear (1999) identified the quality of classroom discourse with four kinds of language use, namely mechanical, meaningful, pseudo-communicative real communication。

2。1。3 Turn-taking

A turn is the time when a speaker is talking and turn-taking is the skill of knowing when to start and finish a turn in a conversation, which are systematic rules which organize the conversation (Coulthard 1977)。 The rules lie in two aspects: firstly, it explains that in a conversation it is impossible to have two speakers simultaneously; secondly, it illustrates how the change between speaker and hearer is negotiated。 

Lorscher (1986) observed varieties of German secondary schools and research results came that in ESL class turns were allocated by teachers, who received right of speech every time students completed their turns and who had power to interrupt or terminate students’ turns。 In addition, Van Lier (1988) found that one possible consequence is that students may lose intrinsic incentive for long-time teacher’s turn, which leads to students’ passive role in classroom interaction。