2。3。2 Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation

Intrinsic motivation illustrated that people engaged themselves in activities for “feelings of competence and self-determination” rather than for “certain internally rewarding consequences” (Edward Deci 1975: 23)。 Typical extrinsic motivation involves material rewards, positive feedback, together with punishment avoidance。 

Many researchers have accomplished studies on the comparison of extrinsic and intrinsic motivation。 Jean Piaget (1972) stated that people are initiated to act desired behaviors in order to beat the challenge like incongruity, uncertainty and disequilibrium。 Maslow (1970) hold the view that intrinsic motivation is more powerful than extrinsic one since the ultimate need of human is to realize the self-esteem and fulfillment。 What’s more, Jerome Bruner (1962) admitted the superiority of intrinsic motivation and claimed that without concerning rewards and punishment is likely to prompt learners to learn and think more efficiently。 But the researches only proves the possibility that learners who are independent on external rewards have a better opportunity to achieve success instead of showing that intrinsic motivation must bring about success。论文网

Educators like Maria Montessori and Carl Rogers found that in many schools students prefer pleasing teachers and parents to satisfying thirst for knowledge。 They were affected severely by extrinsic pressures such as school curriculum, parental expectations, society’s expectations, tests & exams, competition and future livelihood。 However, Brown (2007) argued that accepting the reality and converting pressures into intrinsic innovations may cause glad motivational results。

2。4 Language teaching in the post-method era

By the end of the 1980s, many researches on learning and teaching have been done to formulate an integrated language teaching approach。 It means language teaching approach is not merely to obey several static principles but to change in accordance with authentic teaching process。 Kumaravapelu (2006: 538) proposed a pedagogy of “particularity”, by which he claimed being “sensitive to a particular group of teachers teaching a particular group of learners pursuing a particular set of goals within a particular institutional context embedded in a particular social milieu”。 So not such a model can satisfy the instruction of second language and teaching approach should be adjusted to give contexts of teaching。

The representatives like Savignon (1983, 2005), Brown (2007), Jacobs& Farrell (2003) and Nunan (2003) regarded Communicative Language Teaching as a better model。 For CLT approach, the emphasis is placed on all the components of communicative competence since the teaching objective is to make it possible for students to perform target language in the real-world contexts。 In this way, functions of language for meaningful purposes are more significant than organizational language forms; students’ fluency of language performance is more important than the accuracy of production as well。 Students take an active part in learning process with autonomy and strategic involvement and the role of teacher is a facilitator and guider who gives students feedback and value their development。 By contrast, for some like Kumaravapelu (2006) preferred to embrace task-based language teaching, for others like Ellis (2003) claimed actually TBLT is the core of CLT, which values the tasks during the teaching。 Bygate, Skehan and Swain (2001) implied that the aim of tasks is to promote learners to use language actively, which stressed on meaning, and eventually to attain a goal。 So learning process involving several communicative tasks is intended to develop students’ language ability not in the simulated situation but in the real-world experience with the accomplishment of lesson plan。 Researches made by Ellis (2003), Kumarvapelu (2006), Richards & Rodgers (2001), Skehan (2003) and Nunan (2004) on TBLT attempted to classify different categories of tasks, which happen in varieties of learning forms, and define learner’s factors, teachers’ roles or other elements which may contribute to the achievement of teaching goals。 Brown (2007: 50) summarized numbers of current CLT-related approaches, including Learner-centered instruction, cooperative learning explained by Oxford (1997), interactive learning illustrated by Long (1985), whole language education which can be seen in Rigg’s theory (1991) and content-based instruction chronicled by Brinton, Snow and Wesche (1989)。